Sad Quotes About Life

When the heart is burdened with grief, nothing looks bright. It is not easy to shake off the gloom. The more you try to run away from it, the more it chases you. So let us learn to face our sadness. Here are some sad quotes about life. Use them as an antidote for your depression. Flush the negativity out of your heart. Believe that life is awesome, and you have the chance to make the most of it. Theres something addictive about sadness. It is like a drug that makes you crave sadness. At the same time, you want to get away from it. The self-pity, the self-deprecation, and the selfishness keeps one wallowing in grief. It is a cocoon that keeps you aloof from the world of joy. Its time to break away from this downward spiraling thoughts. Self-pity helps no one, not even you. If you want to move on, think positive.   I can get sad, I can get frustrated, I can get scared, but I never get depressed — because theres joy in my life. Michael J. Fox For all sad words of tongue and pen, The saddest are these, It might have been. John Greenleaf Whittier Nobody deserves your tears, but whoever deserves them will not make you cry. Gabriel Garcia Marquez Every man has his secret sorrows which the world knows not; and often times we call a man cold when he is only sad. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Its easy to cry when you realize that everyone you love will reject you or die. Chuck Palahniuk Open your eyes, look within. Are you satisfied with the life youre living? Bob Marley The tragedy of life is not so much what men suffer, but rather what they miss. Thomas Carlyle Even a happy life cannot be without a measure of darkness, and the word happy would lose its meaning if it were not balanced by sadness. Carl Jung Courage and cheerfulness will not only carry you over the rough places in life, but will enable you to bring comfort and help to the weak-hearted and will console you in the sad hours. William Osler Dying seems less sad than having lived too little. Gloria Steinem Sadness flies away on the wings of time. Jean de La Fontaine Although the world is full of suffering, it is also full of the overcoming of it. Helen Keller I thought when love for you died, I should die. Its dead. Alone, most strangely, I live on. Rupert Brooke Numbing the pain for a while will make it worse when you finally feel it. J. K. Rowling Sadness flies on the wings of the morning and out of the heart of darkness comes the light. Jean Giraudoux

Fortune And Power In Niccolo Machiavellis The Prince

Book Report Paper: Fortune and Power in The Prince by Niccolo Machiavelli Niccolo Machiavelli wrote the novel, The Prince, which was meant as a gift to Lorenzo de Medici, a ruling member of the Medici family (Machiavelli, 1998). The novel addresses politics, but more over managerial skills on how a prince should rule his state. Machiavelli goes on to describe ways in which are best practices for a prince to rule and continue to be in power by using historical examples and using metaphors to authenticate his advices. This novel is split up into four main sections that discusses: different types of principalities or states, different types of armies and how a prince should perform as a military leader, character and behavior of a prince, and†¦show more content†¦They do not know how to hold and they cannot hold that rank: they do not know how (Machiavelli, 1998). In other words, it is the belief that princes or people who gain power through fortune are less likely to be successful to remain in position due to the lack of experience to efficiently le ad (Machiavelli, 1998). Machiavelli also writes in the novel the comparison of fortune to a powerful and flooding river that inflicts destruction of plants, houses, and valuable resources (Machiavelli, 1998). Granting there isn’t anything that one can really do to stop a raging river already in progress, there are things that can be done to make sure that the least amount of damage from such a river will be made through building dams and barriers (Machiavelli, 1998). Also, fortune demonstrates her power where virtue has not been put in order to resist her and therefore turns her impetus where she knows that dams and dykes have not been made to contain her (Machiavelli, 1998). Similarly, as an individual can avoid catastrophic damage from a raging river by building dams, a prince should attempt or endeavor to expect that bad fortune is likely to occur and be prepared fight it when it should arise (Machiavelli, 1998). Subsequently, as Machiavelli’s view that fortune controls half of ones life and the otherShow MoreRelatedEssay about Niccolo Machiavelli1653 Words   |  7 Pages According to legend, just before his death, Niccolo Machiavelli told his friends that had remained faithful to him up until the very end about a dream he had had. In his dream, he had seen a group of peasants, wretched and decrepit in appearance. He asked them who they were. They replied, ‘We are the saintly and the blessed; we are on our way to heaven.’ Then he saw a crowd of formally attired men, aristocratic and grim in appearance, speaking solemnly of important political matters. Again, heRead MoreIn the Defense of The Prince1333 Words   |  5 Pagesfeared than loved ? In any context, this could look like remorseless; however, the deeper the meanings are reached once with a glance at Machiavellis morals and arguments achieved. Inside this essay, I will discuss the deserves, shortfalls and contrav ene arguments of the philosopher political philosophy and system. Also, I will be able to check up on Machiavellis personal history; furthermore to grasp abundant any what and the way drive this argument. It is scarcely scarily eerie to relish the philosopherRead More Discuss the themes of Virtu and Fortuna in The Prince. Essay1535 Words   |  7 PagesDiscuss the themes of Virtu and Fortuna in The Prince. Niccolo Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy on the 3rd May 1469. In 1498, Florence became a republic and Machiavelli gained a position within the Florentine government. After this he was soon confirmed by the great council as the second chancellor of the republic, making him the head of internal affairs. Less than a month later he was elected as secretary to the ten of war, which focussed on foreign and defensive affairs. In NovemberRead MoreNiccolà ² Machiavellis Acquisition of Power Essay1327 Words   |  6 PagesNiccolà ² Machiavelli is representative of Renaissance thinkers in his perception of government. No longer was government seen as an institution granted by God but rather governments were largely becoming arrangements or contracts between those that govern and the governed. Thinkers from Aristotle to Francis Bacon would expound on this idea of a social contract, but none would exemplify the realism and ruthlessness of modern politics like Machiavelli. While the word Machiavellian has become partRead MoreThe Prince by Niccolo Machiavelli2045 Words   |  8 Pagessignificant as Niccolà ² di Bernardo dei Machiavelli, was born into the nobility in the Republic of Florence on 3rd May 1469. He was educated in Latin and then studied at the University of Florence. This fuelled his interest in political theory and so the Medici. During his childhood, Lorenzo de Medici, Il Magnifico, had vast power and influence over the fortunes of Florence fortunes. In awe of the ‘magnificence of the Medicean ruler’ Lorenzo, Machiavelli would later, dedicate The Prince to Lorenzo’sRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s The Prince And Julius Caesar1317 Words   |  6 Pagesirrespective of context. Texts ruminative of this include Tim Parks’ translation of Niccolo Machiavelli’s ‘The Prince’ (1532) and William Shakespeare’s historical tragedy ‘Julius Caesar’ (1599). The values and attitudes of th ese two texts anticipated responders and influenced purpose, form and content such as the darker aspects of humanism, the changeless nature of man, and the fickle nature of people. Machiavelli’s text ‘The Prince’ mirrors the darker aspects of humanism – man is essentially corrupt, self-servingRead MoreEssay Machiavelli in Modern Times2058 Words   |  9 Pagesman by the name of Niccolo Machiavelli. (C4. and Wood, p.510) His most famous work was entitled, The Prince. The book is a compilation of historical examples past and present ( present being the sixteenth century), that were intended to guide a prince on the correct way to control his state. It advocated the use of any means necessary to survive in the political world, even if they were not particularly pleasant. (Strathern, p.6) Despite its age, I believe that Machiavellis writing about individualismRead MoreEssay on Machiavelli1580 Words   |  7 Pages The Italian Renaissance is known for its birth of many notable philosophers, including the famous Niccolo Machiavelli. He is, without a doubt, one of the greatest political thinkers to have ever existed, and his ideas and beliefs have been an inspiration and motivation for many famous leaders. Although he has known to have been a positive influence on mankind, Machiavelli has also distinguished a bad reputation that has been unfairly given to him because of a misunderstanding in his views on politicsRead MorePolitical Action and Morality in Machiavellian Times1232 Words   |  5 Pageshis age, Niccolà ² Machiavelli. The Florentine politician, known most famously for his work, The Prince, discusses, among other things, the relationship between morality and political action. However, unlike the vast majority of his European predecessors, who often argued that political power should be in the hands of the morally virtuous ruler, Machiavelli produces a contrary argument, in which moral ity plays no role in judging the difference between legitimate and illegitimate uses of power. To thisRead MoreMachiavellis Conception of Virtu and Fortuna2644 Words   |  11 PagesMachiavellis conception of virtu and fortuna Niccolo Machiavelli is considered the father of modern political science. Living in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth-centurys, Machiavelli was a citizen of the city-state of Florence where he served as a secretary to the city council and as a diplomatic envoy for 14 years. The Prince was published five years after his death and is regarded as his most famous work. The Prince is an articulate and precise explanation of the way to use the lesson

Eleve11 by Sander Van Doorn free essay sample

Eleve11 It is a common misconception among teens that anything that does not receive mainstream attention is a waste of their precious time. They believe anything that goes under the radar is not fit for their attention, but this is not always the case. A grand example of this is the brand-new album released by Dutch DJ and dance music producer Sander Van Doorn. This album contains a modest eleven song, but as the old adage goes, it is a matter of quality, not quantity, and Sander truly demonstrates a quality album. Being hailed as â€Å"album of the month† by Mixmag Magazine and Tillate UK, this album is receiving rave reviews despite his album not garnering attention from large media corporations such as Rolling Stone Magazine. The album itself comprises of uplifting vocal tracks featuring crossover acts Nadia Ali and Carol Lee, mixed with some instrumental compositions that are the modern-day equivalent of the classical orchestra. We will write a custom essay sample on Eleve11 by Sander Van Doorn or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page One of the singles of the album, ‘Koko’, was a standout anthem, for the Miami Music Week and Ultra Music festival of early 2011. This album has a very intriguing pattern: the first three songs are decidedly calm, the middle six are the most active and rhythmic songs, while the last two songs are smoother and more relaxed. The penultimate track, ‘Eagles’, demonstrates that this producer is no coward. The song is nineteen minutes long, which shows that this man knows how to keep a listener engaged with a daring intermission between the two halves of the song. Britney Spears this isn’t. Another song, ‘Drink to Get Drunk’, evokes a powerful feeling of an almost soul and jazz undertone through its vocals sung by Australian singer Sia. This is just another demonstration of Sander Van Doorn’s fearlessness in producing his greatest album yet. The whole album is a testament to the fact that just because something isn’t being constan tly played on the radio, or at all, in this case, does not mean it is not worth listening to. It was a pleasure to review this album and I hope it will receive the acclaim it deserves.

Why I Write an Example of the Topic Literature Essays by

Why I Write Joan Didions thesis statement in her essay entitled Why I Write is revealed in paragraph three wherein she states that, I stole the title not only because the words sounded right but because they seemed to sum up, in a no-nonsense way, all I have to tell you. Like many writers I have only this one subject, this one area: the act of writing. I can bring you no reports from any other front (Didion, n.d. p.1). The quoted statement contains the thesis of the essay, personally, because it gives the readers an impression and notion that what she is about to tell on the subsequent paragraphs has certainly something to do with her act of writing. Need essay sample on "Why I Write" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed The very idea of the act of writing is already somehow imposed on her introduction which states, In many ways writing is the act of saying I, of imposing oneself upon other people, of saying listen to me, see it my way, change your mind (Didion, n.d. p.1) With that, Didion has already caught the readers attention, as if ordering and demanding that we, readers, definitely need to listen to her and to see things in ways she has seen it and she has written. The body of the essay, presented in the subsequent paragraphs, supports her thesis statement through the examples that she has given. They may not seem to appear as examples however, she presents them in a way that the readers will craft ideas in their mind about her ways, approaches and manners of writingnarrating examples that are anchored on her personal experiences but still reveal them in a manner that she expresses her act of writing. Take for example her recount: I would try to read linguistic theory and would find myself wondering instead if the lights were on in the bevatron up the hill. When I say that I was wondering if the lights were on in the bevatron you might immediately suspect, if you deal in ideas at all, that I was registering the bevatron as a political symbol, thinking in shorthand about the military-industrial complex and its role in the university community, but you would be wrong. I was only wondering if the lights were on in the bevatron, and how they looked. A physical fact (Didion, n.d. p.2). Students Often Tell EssayLab professionals:I'm don't want to write my essay online. I want to spend time with my friendsEssay writers advise:Professionals Are Creating Successful College Custom Essays!Essay Writing Service Essay Writing Service Reviews Steps in Writing an Assignment Writing Services Her tone of voice, the persona in the literature, has also helped sustain the thesis statement. The way she comes up and presents her ideas with regards to the manner of writing can definitely be unveiled in the rest of the paragraphs such as: When I talk about pictures in my mind I am talking, quite specifically, about images that shimmer around the edges. There used to be an illustration in every elementary psychology book showing a cat drawn by a patient in varying stages of schizophrenia. Im not a schizophrenic, nor do I take hallucinogens, but certain images do shimmer for me. Look hard enough and you cant miss the shimmer. Its there. You cant think too much about these pictures that shimmer. You just lie low and let them develop. You stay quiet. You dont talk to many people and you keep your nervous system from shorting out and you try to locate the cat in the shimmer, the grammar in the picture (Didion, n.d. p.3-4). Definitely, her main points in her essay revolve in the core idea of writinghow she writes and why she writes. It involves the conceptions of ideas and images, the construction of sentences, phrases and the shimmering of thingsthe grammar. Didion writes and expresses her ideas in a photographical and philosophical manner. She sees things in details and in different angles, just like how a photographer manipulates his or her pictures in a viewfinder; Didion has also the power to maneuver her images in words, portraying and illustrating pictures in diverse angles and focus. She writes philosophically, making me remember the famous line of Socrates, the only thing I know is that I know nothing. In Why I Write, Didion divulges a statement somewhat akin to Socrates, she declares, I knew that I was no legitimate resident in any world of ideas. I knew I couldnt think. All I knew then was what I couldnt do. All I knew then was what I wasnt, and it took me some years to discover what I was (Didion, n.d. p.1). From the statement, Didion bestows the readers the idea that prior to her discovery that she is a writer; she is someone who does not belong in the world of ideas, in the world of images. However, it must not be explained how she becomes a writer, especially why she writes because her conclusion says and implies so, Let me tell you one thing about why writers write: had I known the answer to any of these questions I would never have needed to write a novel (Didion, n.d. p.8). Didions Why I Write offers a myriad of ideas that will definitely prick in the readers headthat writers have the power to impose things upon other peopleespecially if the writer utilizes the first person point of view in writing, which is I. It entails and insists upon the readers, listen to me, see it my way, change your mind (Didion, n.d. p.1). Reference: Didion, J. (n.d). Why I Write.

Contrib.of paint. in Mid. Age Essay Example

Contrib.of paint. in Mid. Age Essay The development and contrubutions of painting in the Middle AgesCimabue, an Italian painter, was thefirst famous painter of the city of Florence.Cimabues painting of the Madonna Enthroned is painted in a traditional style based on the medieval art of the Byzantine Empire.His faces and figures are rendered stiffly, and placed vertically without size relationship to the figures around them.Cimabues works have great personal force and effect, even though the forms are traditional.Giotto was the most important painter of the 1300s.His paintings of the Madonna Enthroned was painted approximately twenty years after Cimabue and shows a slight contrast to the painters that came before him.Giotto painted the throne of the Madonna with open sides and showed two bearded men looking through the openings.In this way, he gave the feeling that the scene is not flat, but a sense of spacial depth and perspective.The angels gazes are more expressive and the Virgin resembles an actual woman.His realist ic style revolutionized painting in Italy and the natural figures in his works foreshadowed great changes in art.The Limbourg brothers were noted illuminated manuscript painters.Their most famous manuscript was a prayer book called Les Tres Riches Heures.In the vividly colored illuminations, beautiful lords and ladies amuse themselves while servants tend to the guests.These illustrations rise above all others of their time with intricately designed crowd scenes and exquisite detail.Hieronymus Bosch was a Dutch painter who is best known for his triptychs(three paneled paintings).Many of his paintings show landscapes full of distorted people, fantastic demons, and unidentifiable objects.Boschs largest and most complex work is a triptych called The Garden of Earthly Delights which displays three interrelated scenes organized around the creation, fall, and damnation of the human race.The left pa

Are Freuds Theories Of The Oral And Anal Personalities Like essays

Are Freud's Theories Of The Oral And Anal Personalities Like essays This question immediately raises the problem, "how are we to determine which parts of Freudian theory are 'good'?" Freud may well have argued that the evidence he documented from his psychotherapy sessions was sufficient, whilst behaviourists would demand that the various aspects of a theory could only be recognised as 'good' after being exposed to the full rigours of the scientific method. I personally don't feel that one can hope to design a repeatable experiment that will decisively illustrate the existence of, for example, the Oedipus complex. On the other hand I feel that we cannot simply accept a theory that has been moulded to fit a certain experimenters observations, coloured as they must be by their own personality, prejudices, and society. Therefore in this essay I will examine the empirical evidence from studies conducted on these most controversial of Freud's theories, and where that evidence appears on balance to give support to that particular theory, I will accept it a s 'good'. As I said earlier some will regard this measure of worth as too lax to be of any use, whilst others will object to the application of science to the process of personality development, a process that is infinitely complex and unique, and so beyond science. Freud's theories of the oral and anal personality are centred around the idea that the infant is able to experience sexual sensations, and that the basis for these sensations changes during early development. If an infant is over or under stimulated during one of these stages fixation will occur, and certain personality traits will develop. The oral personality, according to Kline (1984) consists of two not entirely opposed constellations of traits, the optimistic oral, associated with late weaning, and the pessimistic oral, associated with early weaning. As both situations cause fixation at the oral stage, many traits are common to both types. Goldman-Eisler (1951) conducted a study, th...

Self- Evaluation Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Self- Evaluation Assignment - Essay Example Also, elected community members play a role in organization through providing the organization’s services. I also worked at the Lifeline and On-TRAK (Treatment: Recovery: Alcohol: Kirklees) Centers whose offices are based in Dewsbury and Huddersfield Centers. Generally, I was on placement at Locala, Lifeline, and On-TRAK Centers and later moved to the Corner Center. The On-TRAK Center offers specialist treatment to clients and patients who are alcoholics. Also, it offers support to individuals at risk of becoming addicted to alcohol and cannot access GP services. The Lifeline offers a vast variety of services for individuals experiencing drug misuse and substance problems. It provides clinical information and advice, and access to a range of non-medical and medical options for drug addicts. Corner Center however assists drug addicts particularly through sharing of life experiences amongst addicts and specialists in group discussions. The Locala, the Lifeline, the On-TRAK and Corner Centers all have the same purpose. These agencies have the responsibility of incorporating clinical elements to individuals addicted to drugs. The Locala Community and Partnership Service, for instance, work within services like the On-TRAK and the Lifeline. Generally, these Centers, particularly the On-TRAK, Locala, and Lifeline Centers, work in cooperation with other services with the purpose of delivering holistic and assorted approach to support of alcohol and drug addicts. The Centers also provide medical and psycho social interventions. They perceive no service as isolation. Therefore, the journey to recovery is considered a pathway. On the first day at work, I did not receive proper orientation concerning what I was expected to do. Therefore I felt unprepared to commence work due to lack of adequate knowledge. This made me nervous and uncomfortable, particularly when I

Question 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Question 3 - Essay Example It is necessary for every organization to have its own structure for the purpose of ensuring effective operation. In simple words, the organizational structure is the hierarchy of the organization’s function and its people. Moreover, it also reflects the values and characters of an organization. Depending upon the values and objectives, an organization tends to adopt one of the following organizational structures. This study seeks to investigate about the type of organizational structures and the importance of organizational structure in the modern days. This study will also shed light on whether there is an appropriate institutional structure for certain sectors? For example, the question to be analysed is - in the automotive and the rapid consumption industry do we expect the structures of these institutions to be any different? In addition, the study will also investigate whether an organization's structure should change due to the shift in environmental conditions? In orde r to analyse the questions the study will depend on the secondary result and ultimately will draw a conclusion. Discussion Every organization needs to have a particular structure in order to operate efficiently as well as systematically in the market place. ... The bureaucratic structure is further divided into three structures namely pre-bureaucratic structures, bureaucratic structures and post-bureaucratic structures. Organisations following pre bureaucratic structures lack standards and are usually visible in start up companies or small companies. Pre- bureaucratic structures are highly centralized and usually there is a sole decision maker. On the other hand, bureaucratic structures have a certain level of standards. This is usually practised in large organization with complex management. Organization following post-bureaucratic structures also put strict management into practise, but they are enthusiastic in adopting new methodologies and ideas as well (Huber, 2005). Functional Structure Organizations following functional structures have their organization divided into different segments as per the functions of the departments. Moreover, the manager or the supervisor of that department also comes from the same background or same filed. As a result of this, organizations embrace the ability to enhance efficiency of the entire organization by appointing and allocating specialized person in each department. For example, in a software company the entire recruitment and selection process of the software engineers are done by the existing software development teams of the organization. In this way the supervision and management of this group becomes effective. Functional structures are mostly visible in organizations with large scale operation (Maguire, 2003). Divisional Structure In this type of organisational structure, companies divide functional areas into different divisions. Each of the division is provided with their own resources in order to ensure they perform their functions and

Challenges and Contributions of Feminism to Organizational Theories Term Paper

Challenges and Contributions of Feminism to Organizational Theories - Term Paper Example Additionally, feminism must be seen as something that creates a totally different way of looking at the genders in that women are not inferior beings. Consequently, feminism challenges old assumptions about the sexes. Feminism can be treated in a number of ways. In certain circumstances, it may be seen as something that is a union of ideologies. This is because unlike many other beliefs, it can be the incorporation of both intellectual as well as social movements. Many experts have argued that feminism lacks objectivity and as such may not be regarded as a whole genus. However, this is beside the point; many other philosophies grew out of a postulation by a certain individual or expert. However, in the case of feminism, the idea grew out of the experiences and times of women. Consequently, one cannot be called a feminist if they do not demonstrate any sort of commitment to activism. Feminism must be a combination of ideology, philosophy, and activism. In other situations, feminism may be treated as a historical aspect. However, today, feminism in the UK and other western countries may be regarded as the fight against institutionalized prejudices against the genders within organizations. In other words, feminism may have changed substantially over the years but all these historical moments have certain things in common; the commitment to reinforcing equality of the sexes. It should be noted that feminism should not be regarded as an ideology that attempts to eliminate men or women out of positions of power. Consequently, one must be able to recognize the fact that feminism understands the differences between men and women but seeks to look for ways in which these two genders can co-exist in harmony.

Cultural Approaches to Communication

Cultural Approaches to Communication There are two traditional approaches to communication: transmission and ritual. The transmission approach views communication as conveying information over a distance for the purpose of control whereas the ritual approach views it as a representation of shared beliefs (Carey, n.d.). The traditional approaches are viewed as counter posed views of communication as none of the approaches contests what the other has to offer. However their insights into the process of communication have given rise to a new cultural approach to communication where communication is defined as a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed (Carey, 1988, pp. 23-24). This approach helps in understanding the existing communication processes in a disarmingly simplistic manner which makes it a wonderful experience. The objective of this essay is to analyze the cultural approach to communication with the help of a communication process, in this case, dance. This essay attemp ts to describe the process of cultural approach to communication with the help of dance as a communication process. Dance was chosen for the case study because it is a social and culturally significant process. Most people have an intuitive understanding of dance, even from different cultures, but what they lack is the ability to explain it to others in terms of a communication process. In his book Experimence and Nature, Dewey claimed that the of all things communication is the most wonderful (1939, p. 385). However, the everyday activities like conversations, giving and receiving instruction, sharing of information, entertaining others and getting entertained which are collectively termed as communication (Carey, 1988, p. 23) are routine activities. They happen so often and are so redundant that they are almost trivial and stop receiving our attention. There is nothing wonderful about these activities unless there is excessive masochism like a brilliant opera or a sensational news item. Such wonderfulness is rare which leads many communication scholars to term day-to-day communication as a common and mundane human experience. However, Carey does not subscribe to this view as he believes that Dewey must have meant something deeper when he termed communication as the most wonderful thing. According to Carey, communication appears mundane as people focus too much on trivial aspects that they forget the awesomeness in it. In his cultural approach to communication, Carey proposed to make communication appear problematic by inversing the relationship between realism and symbolic forms. Carey used the term symbolic process which creates reality to explain the wonderfulness in communication. By the term symbolic process, Carey meant a representation for community ideals in the material forms. The material forms or symbols can be artistic expressions like song, dance, plays, painting or journalism or scientific subjects such as anthropology or biology. The common belief among majority of people is reality is primary and symbolic representation is secondary. This means that there is an all encompassing reality which does not change, what changes is the peoles perception of reality which they represent through an artistic expression or scientific subject. For example, a painter who is pessimistic and sees everything which is wrong in the society is likely to produce darker paintings because it is his perception of reality. The cultural apporach however counters this belief by contesting that the symbols are primary. The symbolic process creates reality or as Kenneth Burke says reality is the signs of words. Carey argues that there is no single reality which is all encompass ing, rather reality is brought into existence by multiple symbolic processes going on in the universe at any point of time. For example, a news item (symbolic process) may lead people to act in a certain way which will create new reality. This reality is different for different people and thus reality is not a given. Dance is a non-verbal communication process which is social and culturally significant. Most people have an intuitive understanding of dance which helps them in evaluating dance from various cultures. There are several genres of dance from classical ballet to popular dance forms, from ritual dance to forms of sport such as figure skating. Different forms of dance are prevalent in different parts of the world such as classical ballet in Europe and ritual dance in Asia. Each culture has its own unique element in dancing, for example, association of musical instruments such as drums with dancing in most of Africa. A common understanding of the important elements of dance across cultures is thus important to understand the communication process. There are several attempts made by researchers to define dance in their cultural context. The Websters Third International Dictionary defines dance as rythmic movemement having as its aim the creation of visual designs by a series of poses through space in time and executed by body parts with a certain temperament and purpose (Kurath, 1960, pp. 234-235). According to Hanna, the concept of series of poses stands good in traditional dance categories such as classical ballet and ritual dance, however fail in modern dance forms such as Tharp in which the dancers bodies just keep spiralling and there is no distinct series of poses (1987). which stand good in their own cultures but fail in their understanding of cross-cultural elements. Kealiinohomoku (1972, p. 387) defines dance as an affective mode of expression which requires both time and space, employs motor behaviour in redundant patterns which are closely linked to the definitve features of musicality. According to Hanna, this definition is too limited as dance can occur without expression of emotions. Moreover, redundancy is not a feature of many dance forms and they often have a unique beginning and climax. The association of musicality with dance is very limited in scope as music and dance are two separate activities and need not happen together. In fact, several dance forms such as figure gymnastics take place without music. The present definitions stand good in their limited cultural context, but fail when applied to diverse cross-cultural dance forms. These definitions of dance are limited in their understanding of important elements of dance across cultures. They either incorporate unnecessary elements (such as transcending utility in Kuraths definition) or leave out important elements (such as culturally patterned sequence in Kealiinohomokus definition. Hanna attempts to bridge this gap in cross-cultural understanding of dance by establishing four criteria which must be fulfilled for an activity to be termed as dance i) purposeful, ii) intentionally rhythmical, iii) culturally patterned sequences of iv a) non verbal body movements, b) extra ordinary motor activites, c) motion having inherent and aesthetic value (Hanna, 1987, p. 19). To analyze dance from a cultural approach to communication, Careys notion of communication, that is, reality is produced, maintained, repaired and transformed has to be evaluated in the context of dance. While dance is influenced by a culture, it also creates a culture (producing reality) of its own. Like any other artists, dancers vie to be unique in their art by incorporating unique steps in their movements which are not necessarily influenced by their culture. A prime example will be Michael Jackson who influenced a new fashion and dance culture of his own throughout the world with his unique steps. Jacksons dance works have lasted in the memories of viewers in the forms of records beyond the actual dance situation. This has influenced thousands of youngsters to copy Jackson which has produced reality by creating a form of dance and even fashion which previously did not exist. Once the reality has been produced, the creators look to maintain the reality in the wake of new generations who might find it problematic by creating rigid rules and regulations. This maintenance of reality is visible in popular dance forms such as classical ballet. Brinson (1991) observes that the national dance culture in elitist Europe has often rigid formality and artificiality which forces the dancers to be within the realm of existing reality. The dance schools and theatres impose this rigidity on students of dance which can be viewed as an effort to maintain reality. It has been moderately successful in some cases. The traditional Indian dance forms such as Bharatnatyam and Kuchipudi are said to have retained their original form after even centuries of their origin despite many external modernizing pressures. In most cases, however, the new generation finds the existing dance forms too problematic and seek to incorporate newer changes (repairing and transforming the reality). A prime example can be Isadora Duncan who worked towards loosening the restrictions on classical ballet and formed a modern dance tradition known as Twyla Tharp. In most cases, however, the repaired reality is caused due to cultural (external) changes. In Duncans case, the rise of theatre dance and vaudeville created an appropriate condition for her to introduce changes to the classical and more rigid form of ballet. This contradicts with Careys notion that transformation in reality will happen due to symbolic process. In the case of Twyla Tharp and most other modern dance forms, the symbolic process has happened due to transformation in reality or cultural changes. This can mean two things. One of them is that Communication, as many scholars claimed, a most mundane experience after all. This means that most of the communication around us is a representation of the reality and not the other way round as Carey theorized. Only on rare activities with excessive masochism can it influence the reality. This was the case with Jackson and Duncan as both were wonderful exponents of their art that they were able to influence a whole new reality due to their lasting effect on peoples memories. A more plausible explanation can be that communication acts as representation of reality and for reality at the same time depending upon the point of view. Borrowing from Bakhtins concept of Intertextuality, an artists work results from an influence of multiple inner voices and yet is completely different from any other artist. Taking this concept into the dance forms, a dancer plays two roles in communication process. He is not only influenced by existing cultural phenomenon which determines his purpose and patterns, he also influences the actual culture through his unique rhythmical patterns which are independent of cultural influence. So a dancer is not only influenced by reality but also creates reality at the same time. The magnitude of his role depends upon the ability of the artist and external conditions prevailing. This explains the case of Jackson and Duncan satisfactorily. The purpose of this essay was to evaluate the effectiveness of Cultural approach to communication using dance as communication process. Dance can create new reality and maintain it. But the changes in reality (repair and transformation) often happen under the influence of external conditions. It was found that Careys notion of symbolic processes creating reality is one-dimensional. It assumes that symbolic processes are the origin and reality is a manifestation of it. However, it was revealed that symbolic processes play a dual role of influencer and influenced at the same time. This opens the question of origin of symbols and reality. It can form the scope of future studies on cultural approach to communication.

Challenger Essay -- essays research papers

On January 26, 1986, one of the greatest disasters of our time occurred. When Challenger was destroyed many questions were asked about the safety of space missions. Many questions were asked about the credibility of the engineers who designed the air craft. It is now know that crucial information about the faulty O-rings was know to many if not all of the engineers. These engineers had many moral decisions they had to face when the problem was first noticed, which was as early as November 1981. When a shuttle is launched their are two booster rockets attached to the side of it that disconnect when the shuttle gets into orbit. The rockets that were on the Challenger were manufactured by Morton-Thiokol, an engineering company. This company then sends the rockets to the launch site where they are assembled. Where the different pieces of the rocket fit together, there is a set of O-rings that make a seal around the booster. Around the O-rings their is a putty substance that holds the O-rings in place. In November of 1981, after the flight of the second shuttle mission, the joints where examined, and the O-rings were eroded. The joints were still sealing effectively but the O-ring material was decaying because of hot gasses that went through the putty. At this point Roger Boisjoly an engineer for Morton-Thiokol started researching different types of putty to reduce the corrosion on the O-rings. After testing the O-rings in the laboratory it was found that they did not return to their original size after being compressed at low temperatures. Thiokol designed a set of billets that would hold the joint more firmly in place. These billets were not ready on the day of the Challenger disaster because they took too long to manufacture, and NASA did not want to delay the project. The next tests took place in June of 1985 at Morton-Thiokol in Utah. The primary seal on flight 51B which flew on April 29, 1985, was eroded; "eroded in 3 places over a 1.3 inch length up to a maximum depth of.171 inches. It was postulated that this primary seal had never sealed during the full two minute flight."i It's at this point that Boisjoly knew he had to go to his superiors about the problem. In August of 1985 Morton-Thiokol formed a task force of engineers to solve the problem of the O-rings. This task force only consisted of 5 engineers wh... ...tressed more in the education of an engineer. Engineers must realize that their are many situations that people put their live in the hands of the engineer. Every time we step into a car we are relying on the design of an engineer, and if any part of it fails the passenger could get hurt if not killed. In today's society their are many institutions that protect the public from technology; buildings must meet certain regulations, and cars have to meet certain safety standards. But their are not as many organizations that protect the rights of the engineers. When can we say that it is no longer the engineer's fault, and say that it is the fault of the operator? Engineers must be careful when it comes to ethical standards, they should not have to be in the same position that Boisjoly was in. By evaluating the situation and acting according to what is best for society and themselves they should find a perfect median between morals and management. i Http://www.mit.edu:8001/activities/ethics ii Http://www.mit.edu:8011/ethics iii http://www.mit.edu:8001/activities/ethics/boisjoly/RB-intro.html ivhttp://www.mit.edu:8001/activities/ethics/boisjoly/RB-intro.html

Bruce Dawe Essay

Bruce Dawe, an Australian known poet, born 1930 is still one of the biggest selling and most highly regarded poets of Australia. His ability to write such influential poems has made an impact on a number of people, as each poem can be related to the ordinary living lives of Australians throughout the years. Bruce Dawe’s poems are interesting because they comment on the lives of ordinary people. This statement is agreed on. In relation to the statement, three key poems can be linked being Enter Without So Much as Knocking (1959), Homo Suburbiensis (1964) and Drifters (1968). In the first poem mentioned: Enter Without So Much as Knocking, Dawe shows the living of a child in the Baby Boomers period, and the era after World War 2 (1950’s to early 60’s). The government had just released an election promise for any mother who beared a child to receive a ‘money’ bonus in return for adding to Australia’s population. With around 3 babies per family on average during this time period, Dawe represents children born in that time period as if being born manufacturing, hence Bruce Dawe’s poems are interesting because they comment on the lives of ordinary people. The Poem Enter Without So Much as Knocking uses many poetic and literary techniques. These include imagery, similes, themes of sexism and stereotypes and rhetorical question. Dawe utilises the whole poem as imagery for the boy’s life. Dawe’s creative sense made it so the audience who would read this poem would see that his life was a game show even in death. This example can be found when Dawe explores death in his sixth stanza. †gave him back for keeps/ the old automatic smile with nothing behind it, winding the whole show up with a/ nice ride out to the underground metropolis:/ permanent residentials, no parking tickets, no taximeters/ ticking, no Bobby Dazzlers here, no down payments,/ nobody grieving over halitosis/ flat feet shrinking gums falling hair. ‘ In this example, Dawe’s use of imagery immediately conveys to his audience the type of life this man led. He also used black humour, using death as an escape from the life he led and still gaining ‘’prizes’’. The next technique used is Simile. Throughout the poem, Dawe represents the child as nothing more than just another person. No significance. No crucial part to his existence. Yet, in the fourth stanza, Dawe finally shows some notion of a positive emotion. The first ever look at happiness and only view throughout the poem. In the stanza, the boy describes his liking for watching movies under a star lit sky, stating: ‘’†¦ a pure unadulterated fringe of sky, littered with stars/ no one had got around to fixing up yet; he’d watch them/ circling about in luminous groups like kids at the circus†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ The effect of using this technique emphasises the fact of something so pure, an actual happy emotion existing in this world, that seems to be so practical and sought out. To the audience it would show that Dawe is trying to create a hope that just maybe the boy will escape this game show fate and live to have the freedom he wishes. The comment of his life also illustrates Dawe’s interesting view on life and ordinary people, as he represents the feeling of being barred from freedom. It also shows how society cannot corrupt the stars as they are too far away. Themes are also used throughout the poem. In the 1950’s to early 60’s women were still trying to attain for themselves. After the Second World War and during the baby boomers period, in stanza two of the poem Dawe comments on this type of living stating: ‘’ his included/ one economy-sized Mum, one Anthony Squires Dad, along with two other kids straight off the Junior Department rack. ’ This technique clearly represents the stereotypical, sexist views of the time period. Women were still seen as just ‘’house-wife’’ material, men were expected to make a living for their family and the average for the number of children per household was three. Anthony Squires as stated was a known Australian Brand Men’s suite. Dawe shows the audience in this quote the type of families seen during the 1950’s, as if manufactured or mass produced. Like a template. Every family had to have one of these. Families during this time did not bond or grow up together, but had been brought and constructed. Another example of sexism can be found in stanza five, as Dawe says, ‘’ and then it was goodbye stars and the soft/ cry in the corner when no one was looking†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ This shows the audience that in this society, during this time period, men were also stereotyped as they were not allowed to cry. They DO NOT cry. The final technique used in Enter Without So Much as Knocking is rhetorical question. Though only used once, it brings the whole poem together, causing Dawe’s audience to have a sudden epiphany. During stanza five, the child is undergoing what seems to be another part of his life. Here we see his growing up, saying goodbye to corruption as the audience reads his corruption as he gives up fighting. The final lines hit the audience with a sense of realisation being: ‘’I mean it’s a real battle all the way/ and a man can’t help but feel a little soiled, himself,/ at times, you know what I mean? ’’ This conveys to the audience what an awful, corruptive world the world has become, and in return man himself has become soiled. Man has been blinded by his own corruption and formed his own stereotypes, and there is no way to return back to the way things were. This is a vital view point and comment on the lives of people during this time period, as Dawe gives a descriptive insight on the matter. Moving onto the second poem: Homo Suburbiensis, another poem that signifies Dawes interest of people and their lives. Written in 1964, in the midst of the ending of the baby boomers period and a time of peace as women start finally getting their rights heard and the Australian government take a new leadership, this poem written by Dawe is a representation of an old man’s mind. The world he lives in is chaotic when wild, yet when in peace is of surpassing beauty like a well-kept garden. The man’s thoughts are shown by the garden. Homo Suburbiensis is also referred to as the modern day Garden of Eden. Another side note worth mentioning is the fact that the title is a parody of scientific classification, as if stating that the garden is also an experiment on the observations of men overtime. Techniques used in this poem include alliteration, symbolism and onomatopoeia. The first two techniques explored are alliteration and symbolism. The way Dawe has written this poem is vital to his audience, as the lines represent the continuation of life, crucially emphasising this point entirely. The alliteration is then used in the third/fourth stanza stating: ‘’He stands there, lost in a green/ confusion, smelling the smoke of somebody’s rubbish. ’’ The alliteration technique shows the continuous, ominous feeling. Almost repetitive, as Dawe gets his audience to relate to the sense of repetition. Also, back in this time period, rubbish was only collected once a week. Households would set their wastes alight and pour in the ashes weekly. This gives Dawes audience a good insight into the 1960’s and their views on pollution and rubbish. The symbolism technique, however, links back to the previous comment of the poem being a modern appropriation of the Garden of Eden as the continuous ‘s’ words would symbolise a snake. Dawe creates a sense of an animal that threatens the peace unless harmed to his audience. An underlying danger ,which, at any given moment could strike and end all peace in a single bite. It also emphasises the fact that Dawe is trying to relate modern man to this threat compared to the original Garden of Eden to show his audience just how easily it is to upset a balance of peace unless treaded on lightly. The final technique used is Onomatopoeia. During this stanza, Dawe has the old man retell what his senses pick up, letting the audience be introduced to both hearing and sight. This being: ‘’†¦a kid/ a far whisper of traffic, and offering up instead. ’’ This technique is used to emphasise Dawes involvement of human senses as well as depicting the old man and his interest in the world – also linking back to the earlier statement of having ‘’Homo Suburbiensis’’ as a possible scientific view on man. These sounds are the only thing that can be heard in his garden, and like the snake, intrude and make Dawes audience realize that they are still being compared to the Garden of Eden to their modern world. The old man, also, can be seen to be lost in thought as he only ‘’vaguely’’ hears some sounds. This techniques use in return also shows Dawes interest in modern life compared to the genesis of the bible and his link to his faith and the Garden of Eden. It shows his audience, again, the problem of corruption and what it has done to man. The third and final poem is 1968’s Drifters. Written describing Dawes own childhood, the poem represents yet another key concept in the viewing of ordinary lives in this time period. Drifters is about a family (representing Dawes own family) who moved from place to place, as the father needs to move by season due to the demand from his job. Though it is seen to be written in a casual manner, if read carefully, Dawes audience would see the seriousness behind it. Techniques used throughout the poem include juxtaposition and dialogue. The first technique used is juxtaposition. Family members often have to compromise or sacrifice what they want in order to belong to their family. Some members, however, wish to establish a permanent sense of place and others don’t. The use of juxtaposition is then shown to the audience as the differing perceptions of moving are based on how long they stayed in one place. The oldest girl is on the verge of tears and the youngest is ‘beaming’. Another example of this is found in the mother’s acceptance of her families ‘drifter’ lifestyle through by stating: ‘’bottling-set/ she never unpacked from Grovedale. ’ Again Dawe and his view point, even when personal, is both interesting and true to the time period when written as it gives his audience an understanding of both the emotion and sacrifice caught in the constant knowing of impermanence. The second and final technique used is dialogue. Repetitive dialogue was used constantly throughout the poem. A lack of permanent place, as mentioned before, is just a continuous spontaneous lifestyle. A feeling that anything could happen. An example of this can be found when she simply says: ‘’Make a wish Tom, make a wish. ’ The kind of lifestyle led and the emotions that come with it like excitement, when announcing that yet again they will be moving on is shown through the unusual endings of particular lines, for example ‘’tripping/ everyone up. ’’ And ‘’she was/ happy here. ’’ The position of line placement represents their emotions as well as the continuity of their lives and the way they live yet again. Dawe and his visual on life tells his audience of his own memories and the hardship he may have faced due to his family being so spontaneous, as well as any other child who went through the same thing as h e during this time frame. In conclusion, all three poems used being Enter Without So Much as Knocking (1959), Homo Suburbiensis (1964) and Drifters (1968) show that Bruce Dawe’s poem are indeed interesting because they comment on the lives of ordinary people. This is shown throughout each of the three poems using various language techniques and personal insight, making his audience see that Dawe truly was and still is a unique Australian writer.

Griffith Report Essays - California, Free Essays, Term Papers

Griffith Report Essays - California, Free Essays, Term Papers Griffith Report During my visit to the Griffith Observatory I had a great experience there. In the front lawn there was statues of famous scientists such as Galileo, Copernicus, Isaac Newton, and others. When I arrived at the museum, I noticed many appealing things immediately. I became aware that visitors can actually become observers from outside of the building. For example the museum offered telescopes for me to use to look into the sky. When I walked further along the site I notice a Solar System Lawn Model. Engraved in the ground was the Milky Way (our solar system), and a Sunset and Moonset Radial observer. Since the observatory was in so many movies, including: Yes man, Funny People, and the Terminator. To me it looked like a mansion. It had a large field of grass that on looked the Los Angeles Horizon. It had a patio where visitors can watch the sunset and sunrise. It also had a section to take pictures in front of the Hollywood sign. As I entered the observatory I knew I would come home with information I had never knew about. There where so many things to touch and look at. I wanted to spend every minute observing the displays. The walls and the ceilings have large beautiful murals painted all along the ceiling, like something from a cathedral in Rome. I was told, they were created to show the connection between science and mythology, as well as the connection between the earth and the sky. There were even murals of all the Astronomers who helped develop Griffith's idea. The center of the building included a large Pendulum, which was a device used to measure the earth's rotation. It was the observatories main attraction and had required perfect creation in order for it to be exact. As everyone was gathered around this object, we wondered how it worked. At the bottom of the floor was a measuring device with domino like blocks rotating around it. It worked in the strangest way I can imagine, as the ball moved back and forth it would knock down the blocks according to the earth's rotation. There were many sections at the Griffiths Observatory that had hands-on activities for me to understand. One for example was a machine that determined the temperature of my body,called a UAV Ray generator. I moved aimlessly around the machine to see how hot or cold I was. As it turns out, my ears are actually colder than any other part on my body. To me it seemed like it was looking through heat vision goggles. As if I was looking for someone through a scope, dead at night. I then knowingly, started grabbing random objects to find out the temperature. It was amusing at first but I later got into trouble. Checking out this demonstration is something I would recommend for new visitors. Throughout the time I spent at the Griffith's Observatory, I learned a lot about our galaxy. It had many additional facts about our solar system, as well as our planet. In addition, it was very neat to see the Los Angeles basin with its city lights and fast paced atmosphere. I would recommend going to this museum for a family trip or school event. I learned a lot about the different types of moons, stars and the elements of the periodic table. It was also fascinating to learn about the pendulum in order to figure out the earth's time and rotation. I learned a lot about astronomy that day. Overall my visit to the observatory was a great experience for me to take upon and will most likely be going again.

Early 20th Century Socialist Movement Essays

Women in the Late 19th/ Early 20th Century Socialist Movement Essays Women in the Late 19th/ Early 20th Century Socialist Movement Essay Women in the Late 19th/ Early 20th Century Socialist Movement Essay The differences between the women of the working and middle class created a situation of conflict for the first wave of feminists, despite both groups shared intention of bettering the lives of women. The late nineteenth and early twentieth century socialist movements in Europe was no different, it attracted many people looking for a better life, including working class womens groups. Lily Braun was one of these women, however, in spite of her dedication she failed to be accepted by the working or middle class womens groups because her background and her radical ideas placed her outside the boundaries of both groups. The main points of contention between the working and middle class women were the means by which they sought to improve the lives of women. For working class women, this meant implementing laws to protect women in the workplace, and allowing them access to unions. Middle class women felt that any special treatment for women undermined their claim that women were equal to men, and rallied against legislation that would give women special treatment. Lily Braun, despite her status as an educated and middle class woman, sided with the working class womens idea of legal protection for working mothers, including maternity leave and outlawing hazardous work. This paper will begin with a brief discussion of the goals of working and middle class womens groups and why these similar goals lead to conflict between the groups and conclude with a discussion of how Lily Brauns unique feminism failed to find a niche within either group. For women of the new capitalist class, discrimination based on gender differences was blatantly obvious in their daily lives alongside men of their own class who had achieved many of the political, educational and economic rights that they were still, as women, unable to achieve. These were women who did not share all the privileges of aristocratic women, but who, unlike working-class women, saw all the discrimination they faced originating from their sex, rather than their class. In 1894, the bourgeois women’s movement came together as a loose federation in the League of German Women’s Associations (Bund Deutsche Frauenvereine). Bourgeois feminists concentrated forcefully on ‘equal rights’ issues, such as property rights, fighting to overturn legislation that held that a woman needed her husband’s permission to work outside the home; that she had to turn over to him all her property and income; and that she was under the legal guardianship of her fa ther, then her husband. In contrast to the middle class women’s movement’s concern over gender inequality, the working women’s movement focused on class structure as the root of their oppression. Capitalism’s drive to exploit labor as cheaply as possible, and a trend to shift production to the factory while social reproduction (taking care of workers, rearing children) remains within the home had not invented women’s oppression, but had made its own ‘woman question’ from sexual oppression inherited from previous class societies. At the founding congress of the Second International in 1889, Clara Zetkin argued that under capitalism, woman was enslaved to man, as the worker was to capital. Economic independence would enable working-class women to play their part in class struggle, but without pressing the struggle forward to socialism, this would only replace slavery to a man with slavery to an employer. So the key to achieving women’s emancipation was a fundamental change in property relations production had to be owned and controlled collectively, the household economy had to be socialized to free women from the domestic burden. The socialist program for women’s liberation had to be a program for the abolition of class society. In her book A Vindication of the rights of Women in 1972, Mary Wollstonecraft emphasized the need to clear prior errors most of her predecessors had made.   She referred to the middle class women which she belonged as easy to twist and obscure with stereotypic shenanigans which they (men) clearly understood was only to assist them remain in power unperturbed.   Most of the women in the middle class viewed immediate satisfaction being the opening of doors to work in different areas after a long period of suppression.   Arguably, this was a remarkable achievement; however, Wollstonecraft understood the long way they had to go before they could claim they were really free in deed.   After partly accessing the much desired resources by women, the conflict was evident as the capitalist higher class women could figure out that the most important aspect that should have been celebrated was the access to political power which could be used to fix their subsequent problems with ease.à ‚   Considered to be part of undermining the middle class women, she emphasized on the need to rise above the virtues and the common wants of affection that were traditionally thought to be derived from family integration and women submission to their husbands. European Consortium for Political Research (41-13) indicates that in order to ensure better and responsible reference to the women roles, the perfection of their nature and capability of happiness should have been estimated by the degree of reason, virtue and knowledge which distinguishes the individual as well as the laws which bind the society and therefore set a basic platform for coterminous evaluation.   However, this notion was overshadowed by a strong dark cloud which made their quest vague in the society.   Even after the direct agreement that their considerations required to be urgently addressed, the quest ebbed out after the initial achievements.   Scholars argue that poor leadership between women in the society formed the direct platform for the delayed quest of their rights.   Whereas most of them were at the middle class where leadership skills had mostly not been attained, the upper class group failed greatly in closing the gap.   Having been mostly born of t he high class, they had access to better education and therefore the capacity necessary for ensuring better articulation of their ideologies to others and the leadership.   However, this link was not offered as most of them looked at the system from an individualistic mode.   As a result, great differences arose from lack of effective harmonization and inclusion of all women’s contribution into the main call for the fight to their rights.   Human nature has been pointed out as one of the most resistant systems to change.   Even when the essence for change is very clear, strong reminders are required for direct application. According to Lily Braun Alfred Meyer (11-121), Bourgeois women’s work was difficult in application and had little to encourage togetherness among the women.   Women were generally less advantaged during their daily work and the course for natural duties.   Of greater stress were the married women who had to cope with family aspects and live with fast deterioration of their systems. Most of the men abused their wives and put them in worse conditions to support themselves after childbearing took off their much needed ability to work.   Besides, they were unable to support their growing children, effectively work and participate in the quest for their common rights.   Therefore, closer interlink and harmonic evaluation of the intrinsic effects was missing as an analytical tool to induce their quest.   By their nature, women had much more roles to play which were not recognized by the system and men in various positions of authority.   Arguably, the roles played by wo men were assumed and only women could tell the extent of the impacts to their lives in the society.   Lily Braun, Alfred G. Meyer (18-22) continue to say that the direct emphasis had to come from the women themselves and forcefully too if they wanted to achieve the much anticipated status in the society.   Similar to men, they were monolithic in approach which never subsided during the different problems.   During problems and quest for common desires, men were considered to have strong similarity which bound them together. Sociologists argue that during the late 19th century, the society was directly anchoring itself to ensure women were permanently imprisoned in domestic affairs with minimal external consideration for their development.   Arguably, most of the men supported the idea and viewed their wives as lesser spouses who were supposed to be involved more with domestic affairs as opposed to the â€Å"mens† work in offices.   This was not just depressing but morally wrong and drove women from both classes to quest for liberation from the common system that sought to devour them. However, differences in approach for solution to a single problem is considered to be highly fatal than the problem it seeks to address (Richards, 74-76).   Most of the bureaucrats saw a direct chance of articulating their weird ideologies that were highly destructive for them.   To ensure they remained relevant and supportive to the higher class ruling elite, divide and rule system was easily effected.   However, this mostly affected the majority of women who were in middle class.   Most of the upper working class were already enlightened and could not easily be divided as they had the much required resources and social status that the middle class was struggling to get.   Therefore, by promising better lifestyle to the later, they changed their approach to the common problem that was facing them prompting the contrast. Political setting during early 20th century portrayed a direct disrespect for human nature that was highly guided by gluttony driven by those in power.   At this time, political power and â€Å"leadership† was a reservation for men.   As indicated earlier, most of the women were looked down upon and their interests could only be represented by men in administration.   Considering the direct bureaucratic nature of men whose minds were mostly war driven by then, women had less space and consideration or success.   Arguably, it was this lack of political muscle that courted the undercurrents for dividing and deviating women’s quest for unity.   Men in authority saw threat from women unity as it dawned to them that women were more and could easily turn around the management and operations of their selfish systems.   Though this forms a strong debate that is far from over, most of the scholars argue that men played a bigger role in Lily Braun calls of unity than did women of different social classes. Conclusion Much is to be gained by studying the different perspectives and conflicts between bourgeois and proletariat women’s groups during the late nineteenth to early twentieth century, especially in context with their class based reaction to Marxism that set them at odds with one another.   We learn that what was collectively referred to as the â€Å"woman question† in those days, was actually a much more complex matter that was rooted in the differences between the upper and middle class. In fact, one can consider the position of the working class women as â€Å"reluctant feminists† because their main interest was escaping their enslavement to the capitalist bourgeois, it becomes clear why reconciliation between the two groups was impossible. However, feminists such as Lily Braun strove for unity between the two groups, knowing that a united front would catalyze the changes necessary to improve women’s position in society. Braun’s maverick tendencies ev entually lead to her downfall within the women’s movement, as both sides rejected her contributions that did not coincide with existing ideals. Looking back on Braun’s writing with a modern perspective allows her work to be fully appreciated as ahead of its time, despite the rejection she received from her peers. Braun’s proposal to combine the efforts of both bourgeois and proletariat women’s groups may have gone unheeded during her lifetime, and the policies both groups chose to implement as distinct factions surely lead to lost opportunities, however eliminating the class and gender bias is a problem still faced today. Perhaps, even in our modern times taking a second look at Braun would allow society to rise above these persisting issues and work to better society as a whole.

Information Management - Midterm Assessment Essay

Information Management - Midterm Assessment - Essay Example All these categories should be cohesively used and are vital for the achievement of any enterprise. Different concentrations of analytics give insight to various factors. For example: knowledge on customer preference, location and retention (Farasyn et al. 2011: 67). The biggest weapon that P&G had was arguably top notch analysts who did not take the traditional ways to do things as the one and only rule. Tores, Perssini, McDonald and the rest of the team were a group of forward thinkers, risk takers and a team that valued transparency, qualities that are all paramount in analysis. They did a big job of introducing and encouraging an analytical culture and environment in the company (Davenport, Thomas, Marco Iansiti, & Serels 2013: 5). 1. Provision of up to date data- before analytics was adapted in P&G, historical data was relied upon for analysis and statistics. These meant problems were not seen as they emerged but periodically after the storm had passed. Analytics helped to provide up to date data, all the market changes or consumer behavior changes are easily noted, and problems nipped at the bud as soon as they appeared. An excellent example is seen in the North America Laundry detergent Market case study, if the market growth was not noticed in time, P&G would consequently lose that potential market to competitors had they not addressed the issue of supply in time (Davenport 2006: 98). 2. Marketing strategies- analytics provide a good way to formulate marketing strategies to yield the best result. P&G decided to start with North America, Ohio and roll out to the rest of the regions after studying the consumer’s behavior to the new compact powder. From the findings, the team was able to know which stores to supply a new product with. Even though, initially the sales were difficult to track due to stores that had stocked the older version of

Effect of trampling on length of Cranesbill leaves Coursework

Effect of trampling on length of Cranesbill leaves - Coursework Example We make the assumption, for instance, that for a given distance along the transect, the soil and other relevant conditions are similar. Moreover, we can take it that if the data is any good, then standard deviations along any point of data collection along the transect (one meter intervals) should be small. This is to be expected too, given that for every measurement point along the transect there is only one reading for the soil compaction level, and several readings for the leaf length. Therefore, if soil compaction is correlated with the leaf length, then one can assume that the variations in length sizes along any measurement point in the transect should be small, or at least not significant enough to cause worry and doubt as to the validity of the data and of the alternative hypothesis being accepted (Statistics Canada 2011). Indeed, looking at the range of the standard deviation along the different measurement points in the transect, one sees that there is somewhat of a variati on along the measurement points, by a factor of 3 in some measurement points compared to others. There are several ways to interpret this. On the one hand, looking at the standard deviation figures, within the measurement points it is not conclusive that the standard deviation magnitudes are enough to cause worry as to the data validity. On the other hand, one can also investigate that maybe the wide variances in the sample data of leaf lengths within the measurement points may have something to do with the standard deviation being large or small. For example, looking at measurement point 8, or the measurement of leaf lengths at the point of eight meters from the start of the transect, one sees that the standard deviation is unusually large, in fact larger than any other standard deviation figure for the rest of the measurement points. Examining the data for this measurement point, one sees that compared to the other measurement points, there is a wider variation of measurement data for leaf lengths (1.5; 2.8; 2.8; 2.7; 2.3; 2.5). Looking at the measurements of leaf lengths at point 0, where the transect begins, one sees that the variation in measurements is somewhat smaller, or to put it another way, the leaf lengths are closer to each other, or varies less in comparison to measurement point 8 (1, 0.8; 0.8; 0.7; 0.7). This is borne out by the computed standard deviation for this measurement point, which is about a factor of three smaller than the standard deviation for point 8. The point is that within the measurement points, the standard deviation for the measurements vary in magnitude, and in some measurement points quite larger in comparison to the other measurement points. Judging by the standard deviation alone therefore, one comes to suspect whether the correlation between soil compaction and leaf length exists, and if the established correlation is valid. Of this, more will be said with regard to the inherent limitation of the study (Statistics Canada 2011; Wolfram Research 2012) Looking at ambient data, or data that is related to soil quality or pH, soil temperature, and the amount or intensity of the light present, this paper makes the assumption that more study needs to be done to either factor in or discount each of these variables as being correlated or associated with leaf length.

Strategic Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Strategic Management - Essay Example In 1998, ‘Somerfield’, a supermarket group acquired Kwik Save in a transaction worth ?473 million (Somerfield, n.d.). They had faced huge competition when super store Tesco and Sainsbury launched their own brands. In addition, other two discounters Lidl and Aldi had also entered the retail market. Several stores were closed around the United Kingdom and as a result the company went under administration. They also sold a few stores to Fresh Xpress but it was also under administration and ultimately all the stores were closed. Eventually, the entire of stores of Kwik Save closed in 2007 (Docstoc, 2010). Kwik Save had closed down 79 stores in order to survive in market. Kwik Save also sold its stores to Somerfield in 2006, and since then more problems aroused which resulted in lay off of several outlets, collapsing of sales as well as suppliers refusing to supply goods (Earth Times, 2011). The management of Somerfield realised that the outlook and inner look of Kwik Save st ores would not fit well with the brand of Somerfield. They had warehouse style of inexpressive wooden shelving, space-saving undersized checkouts and thin passageway which needed to be changed by Somerfield. Subsequently, Somerfield decided to maintain and fully renovate the 102 best stores although the remaining 248 stores were fixed up for closure (Somerfield, n.d.). ... The market share of Kwik Save cut down from 1.2 % in April 2006 to 0.2% in 2007 (Docstoc, 2010). 2.0 Causes of Strategic Problems The company was focussing more on acquisition rather than improving the existing operation. Poor thinking as well as decision-making has been the prime cause of their strategic business failure. The store was not achieving their target since it was established (White Lane, n.d.). Firm’s Strategic Positioning Kwik Save was a successful grocery discount supermarket chain around the United Kingdom. They had developed the strategy to sell branded product in a cheap rate to attract maximum numbers of customer. This strategy led to an amalgamation of low fixed cost as well as severe central control. All this were the outcome of network of above 870 conveniently located and unpretentious stores located around the UK. It adopted a â€Å"no nonsense† approach for grocery retailing. The customer money was provided importance thus they were charged low rate for the products. But in 1970s and 1980s, the entrance of super stores hindered their growth and they could not compete with those retail stores. Firm was successful in strategy positioning when no other highly discount based retailers were present but due to the emergence of superstore they were left behind. The superstores were providing importance to leisure, comfort; excitement in the store but Kwik Save with its simple design, could not gain competitive advantage (Reference for Business, 2011). Firm’s Managers Analysis of the Environments of their Industry Andersen Consulting was appointed by the managers of Kwik Save in order to conduct ‘root-and-branch’ strategic review. Kwik Save was one of the â€Å"Britain’s number one discounter† but became

The Theory of the Forms as Portrayed Throughout Plato`s Dialogues Essay Example for Free

The Theory of the Forms as Portrayed Throughout Plato`s Dialogues Essay Prologue to Plato’s Theory of Forms Plato’s Theory of Forms suggests the dichotomy between the material world and the world of ideas. In the Republic, Plato clearly delineates the difference between the two by first arguing that the material world, or the world which we live in, is not a perfect world and one that is full of error. On the other hand, the world of ideas is the perfect world. In such world, the Forms exist. The forms are the perfect entities upon which the structure or the essence of the material objects in the world are based. That is, the forms serve as the foundation not only of the physical structure of the objects in the world but also of the true composition of things apart from their corporeal composition. The forms correspond to the â€Å"blueprints† of the worldly objects. The argument of Plato that the forms are the bases for the essence and, hence, the composition of things consequently implies the argument that the forms have a higher degree of significance than the worldly objects. Part of the reason to this is the notion that without these forms the corresponding corporeal objects in the material world will not come into existence. Thus, the primacy of the forms is held with significant value throughout the philosophy of Plato. Moreover, Plato argues that one cannot exactly derive the essence of things in the material objects themselves for the reason that these objects do not inherently have in them their â€Å"essence†. Although to a certain degree one may be inclined to claim that the worldly objects manifest the essence they intrinsically hold through the use of the sense, Plato thinks otherwise. One reason to this argument is the Platonic belief that our senses cannot give us a full and accurate account of the nature of things. Though our senses of perception may provide us with immediate perception on the objects which are within the proximity of our consciousness, Plato contends that our senses are so limited that we cannot actually grasp in full detail what it is that these objects hold in themselves. Further, even if we are able to sensibly acquire the sensory manifestation of these objects, it remains that we are still bereft of the essence of these objects because they do not have in them the essence that provides for the very structure of their existence. However, we must be reminded that Plato suggests that man essentially holds within him the genuine form of knowledge and the understanding of the world. This is what man basically possesses within him, something which is so intrinsic that it cannot have been originally from beyond man himself. Further, knowledge for Plato is a type of recollection wherein each individual is reminded of the forms through his or her sensory experience of the objects in the world. In his allegory of the cave, Plato further strengthens his claim on the primacy of the forms and the failure of the conventions set forth by the senses to provide us with the knowledge on the essence of things. Citing that human beings are like prisoners in a cave who have not seen the â€Å"reality† of the objects that they merely perceive as shadows, Plato goes on to argue that we ought to be relinquished from such a fixed state. Consequently, once man finds himself liberated from the chains that have tied him down inside the cave, he then can begin to ascend out of the cave and into the world â€Å"outside†. The transformation does not easily arrive at a point of full realization for the reason that man’s eyes will apparently be hurt by the light coming from the sun. Thus, it can be emphasized that Plato suggests that the process of acquiring true knowledge is one which is not an easy task and may hurt the sensibilities of man. Part of the reason to this is the fact that man throughout the course of his life has been so acquainted with the seeming knowledge of things given to him through convention that he tends to easily accept what is offered by his senses without even beginning to question the validity of these sensory experiences. Nevertheless, Plato holds that our sensory experiences also hold an initial role in the process of realizing genuine knowledge. It is through our very experiences that we get immediate understanding of the empirical existence of objects and that these events serve as the starting point of the far more noble task of obtaining true knowledge beyond the confines of human convention. For the most part of Plato’s theoretical framework on the essence of objects and the acquisition of true knowledge, one can begin to assess these concepts in terms of their validity through logic. That is, if indeed what we are merely able to grasp through sensory experiences are those which are simply based on the corporeal existence of objects and not strictly on their â€Å"essential† level, the question remains as to how exactly will we, as human beings, be able to arrive at true knowledge. Or far more importantly, the more fundamental question is on how we can be able to even begin the â€Å"painstaking† task of gaining the essence of things. If we are to adopt Plato’s scheme in arriving at the understanding of the forms in the world of forms, one should critically assess the measures that must be done and the goals that must be met in the long run. Having this as guidance will lessen sensory deterrence to the task of grasping the forms. In conclusion, Plato’s theory on the distinction between the world of forms and the visible or material world is one which sharply demarcates the limits of the senses. It brings into light the argument that human beings, as essentially endowed with sensory capabilities, cannot escape the error brought forth by the limits of the senses. Nevertheless, even with the imperfectness of man’s senses, one has no other starting point in advancing a grander goal than through these basic senses. The world of ideas may or may not actually exist, but the far more important question is whether indeed the material world cannot provide us the essence of things and that beyond the sense everything is in perfect state. Socratic Forms Socrates believes that correct answers to ‘What is F?’ questions specify forms; forms are the objects of definition where, as we have seen, definitions are real definitions. The ontological correlates of real definitions are real essences, non-linguistic universals that explain why things are as they are. Anything that is gold, for example, has the real essence of gold and is gold precisely because it has that real essence. So, as Socrates says, the one thing by which all Fs are F is a form (Euthyphro 5d1–5; Meno 72c7). Or again, he says that the form of piety is some one thing, the same in (en; Eu. 5d1–2; cf. Ch. 159a1–2, 158e7) everything that is pious; it is that feature of things by which they are pious. On the account I have been suggesting, Socrates offers an epistemological argument for the existence of forms: the possibility of knowledge requires explanation, and this, in turn, requires the existence of forms—real properties and kinds. He also offers a metaphysical one over many arguments for the existence of forms: the existence of many Fs requires the existence of some one thing, the form of F, in virtue of which they are F.[i] David Armstrong has usefully distinguished between realist and semantic one over many arguments.21 Realist one over many arguments posit universals to explain sameness of nature; if a group of objects are all F, they are F in virtue of sharing a genuine property, the property of F. (A predicate nominalist, by contrast, would say that they are all F because the predicate ‘F’ is true of them all; we need not postulate a genuine property that they all share.) Semantic one over many arguments posits universals to explain the meanings of general terms and, indeed, universals just are the meanings of those terms. On the account of Socrates that I have provided, he offers not a semantic but a realist one over many arguments. For, as we have seen, he wants to know not the meanings of general terms, but the properties in virtue of which things are as they are. If forms are properties whose range and nature are determined by explanatory considerations rather than by considerations about meaning, then they are not meanings, if meanings are taken to be something other than properties conceived in realist fashion. But might Socrates view forms as meanings, and take (some) meanings to be properties? He presumably would do so if he accepted a referential theory of meaning. However, it has been cogently argued that Socrates takes the virtue terms to be non-synonymous but co-referential, so he cannot consistently accept a referential theory of meaning.[ii] But is Socrates inconsistent? Or does he confusedly view forms not only as properties but also as meanings, where meanings are taken to be something other than properties? It is difficult to be sure, since he does not discuss semantic questions. But so far as I can see, he does not suggest that forms play any semantic role.[iii] If Socrates relies on a realist one over many arguments, then he presumably takes every property to be a form. To be sure, he does not explicitly say how many forms there are; as Aristotle says, Socrates is primarily interested in the virtues. But he never suggests a principle that restricts forms to a subclass of properties; and he sometimes explains why each of the virtues is some one thing, and so a form, by appealing to quite heterogeneous sorts of cases.[iv] Although Socrates seems to believe that every property is a form, he is not committed to the view that every predicate denotes a form. For, again, forms are explanatory properties, and not every predicate denotes an explanatory property. In addition to suggesting that Socratic forms are universals conceived as explanatory properties, and that on Socrates’ view knowledge of them is necessary for having any knowledge at all, Aristotle also claims that Socrates did not take forms to be either non-sensible or separate. I turn now to these claims. One might argue that Aristotle is wrong to say that Socrates did not take forms to be non-sensible; on the ground that Socrates routinely rejects answers to ‘What is F?’ questions that are phrased in terms of behavior or action-types. Moreover, at least in the case of the virtues he seems to favor accounts that are phrased in terms of certain states of the soul and these, it might be thought, are not observable. It might then be tempting to infer that Socrates believes that a correct answer to a ‘What is F?’ question must specify a non-observable property, a property not definable in observational terms. However, although Socrates regularly rejects answers to ‘What is F?’ questions that are phrased in observational terms, he never says that they fail because they are so phrased. They fail, as we have seen, because they are too narrow or too broad, or because they are not explanatory; but Socrates does not link these failures to the fact that the answers are phrased in observational terms. He leaves open the possibility that although the proposed accounts fail, some other account phrased in observational terms might be satisfactory. This, however, is enough to vindicate Aristotle if he means only that Socrates does not explicitly say that forms are non-sensible, and so in that sense is not committed to the claim that they are; and that seems to be all Aristotle means.[v] What, now, about separation? Discussions of separation are difficult, partly because ‘separation’ is used differently by different people. I shall follow Aristotles lead and say that A is separate from B just in case A can exist without B—that is, just in case A can exist whether or not B exists or, equivalently, just in case A exists independently of B.[vi] Separation so defined is a modal notion; if A is separate from B, A can exist whether or not B exists. (Hence A can be separate from B even if A never actually exists when B does not.) Separation so defined is also a relational notion: to be separate is always to be separate from something. In the case of forms, the relevant ‘something’ is sensible particulars (Met. 1086b4, 8).[vii] So Socratic forms are separate just in case they can exist whether or not there are any corresponding sensible particulars. If forms are universals, then to say that they are separate is to say that they can exist uninstantiated by the corresponding sensible particulars.[viii] Socrates never explicitly says or denies that forms are separate; nor do his ways of characterizing forms seem to commit him one way or the other. He says, for example, that forms are in things (e.g. Eu. 5d1–2). But to say that forms are in things is only to say that various sensible have them, i.e. have the relevant properties. It does not follow from the fact that sensibles have properties that those properties are not separate, i.e. cannot exist unless some corresponding sensible particulars instantiate them.[ix] Other evidence seems equally indeterminate. This, however, is enough to vindicate Aristotles claim that Socrates did not separate universals, i.e. forms, if, as seems to be the case, he means only that Socrates is not committed to separation.[x] I close my discussion of Socrates by considering two further claims about forms—that they are self-predicative and that they are paradigms. Although Aristotle does not mention these claims in connection with Socrates, they are important in understanding both Plato and also Aristotles criticism of him in the Peri ideÃ… n; and we can get a better grip on Plato’s version of these claims if we look first at Socrates’ version. Socrates believes that the form of F cannot be both F and not F; that is, it cannot suffer narrow compresence with respect to F-ness. It can avoid being both F and not F in one of two ways: by being neither F nor not F, or by being F without also being not F. Although the evidence is meager, Socrates seems to favor the latter option; he seems to believe, that is, that the form of piety is pious, the form of justice is just, and so on. He thus seems to accept self-predication (SP), the thesis that any form of F is itself F.[xi] It no doubt sounds odd to say that the form of justice is just, and it may not be correct to do so. But the claim is more intelligible than it may initially appear to be. We have seen that Socrates says that various action-types and character-traits are F and not F—endurance, for example, is both courageous and not courageous. He does not mean that endurance is courageous or not courageous in the very same way in which a person might be; the property of endurance, for example, does not itself stand firm in battle. Rather, endurance is courageous and not courageous in so far as it explains why some things are courageous and why other things are not.[xii] Socrates believes, that is, that if x explains y’s being F, then x is itself F, though not necessarily in the very same way in which y is F; rather, x is (or may be) F in a sui generis way, simply in virtue of its explanatory role.[xiii] We can understand self-predications along the same lines. Forms are properties; the form of justice, for example, is the property of justice. Socrates believes that it is the single feature by which all and only just things are just; it is the ultimate source or explanation of what is just about just things, and it never explains why anything is not just. Socrates does not mean that it is just in the very same way in which Aristides was; he means that it is just simply in virtue of its explanatory role. On this view, Socrates has unusually generous criteria for being included in the class of Fs; something can be a member of the class of Fs by being the source or explanation of something’s being F in the ordinary way. We might well object to these criteria; but they do not commit Socrates to the view that the form of justice, for example, can win moral medals.[xiv] On behalf of this account of self-predication, it is worth noting that we readily predicate (e.g.) ‘justice’ in the ‘ordinary’ way of categorically different types of things—of, for example, people, acts, institutions, laws, and the like. So perhaps predicating it of the property of justice is not as radical a departure from ordinary usage as it may initially seem to be. Further, we have seen that Socrates is not shy about revising our pre-analytic beliefs; so perhaps one new belief he wants us to acquire is that the form of F is itself F. We have seen that Socrates believes that the one thing by which all Fs are F is the form of F; he also takes this one thing to be a paradigm (paradeigma, Eu. 6e4–5), so that by looking to it (apoblepein eis; Eu. 6e4) one can know of any given thing whether or not it is F. Plato and Aristotle use paradeigma in a variety of ways. Often, for example, they use it simply to mean ‘example’.[xv] Aristotle once calls his own forms paradigms (Phys. 194b26 = Met. 1013a27), by which he seems to mean that they are the formal—structural or functional—properties of things; as such, they are explanatory natures. But as we shall see, he believes that Platonic forms are paradigms in a different, and objectionable, sense. When Socrates says that forms are paradigms, he seems to mean only that they are standards in the sense that in order to know whether x is F, one must know, and refer to, the form of F. For x is F if and only if it has the property, i.e. form, of F; so in order to know that x is F, one needs to know what F is and use that knowledge in explaining how it is that x is F. (So paradigmatism and self-predication are closely linked. The form of F is F because it explains the F-ness of things; forms are also paradigms in virtue of their explanatory role.) I shall call this weak paradigmatism. As I interpret Socrates, he introduces forms for epistemological and metaphysical, but not for semantic reasons. Further, Socratic forms are universals in the sense that they are explanatory properties. The fact that they are self-predicative paradigms does not jeopardize their status as explanatory properties; on the contrary, they are self-predicative paradigms because they are explanatory properties. Compresence, Knowledge, and Separation Why does Plato take the compresence of opposites to require the existence of non-sensible forms that escape compresence? Aristotle rightly says that the reasons are metaphysical and epistemological. The metaphysical reason is especially prominent in the famous aitia-passage in the Phaedo (96a ff.), where Plato lays out criteria for adequate explanations. In his view, if x is F and not F, it cannot explain why anything is F; it cannot, in other words, be that in virtue of which anything is F. Since some sensible properties of F suffer compresence, reference to them does not explain why anything is F, and so they cannot be what F-ness is. Since explanation is possible, in these cases things are F in virtue of a non-sensible property, the form of F. So Plato concludes that ‘if anything else is beautiful besides the beautiful itself, it is so for no other reason than that it participates in the beautiful’ (Phaedo 100c4–6). Or again, it is not because of ‘bright color or shape or anything else of that sort’ (100d1–2) that anything is beautiful; rather ‘it is because of the beautiful that all beautiful things are beautiful’ (100d7–8). For sensible properties suffer compresence in so far as bright color, for example, is sometimes beautiful, sometimes ugly. In Plato, the Socratic view that the form of F is the one thing by which all Fs are F becomes the view that forms are aitiai, causal or explanatory factors—at least in certain cases, things are as they are because they participate in non-sensible forms that escape compresence. This metaphysical reason for positing forms has epistemological repercussions. For like Socrates, Plato thinks that knowledge requires explanation;[xvi] since he believes that in at least some cases explanation requires reference to forms, he also believes that in these cases one can have knowledge only if one knows the relevant forms. Since knowledge in these cases is possible, there must be forms. This epistemological reason for positing forms is especially prominent in Rep. 5–7, where Plato asks the ‘What is F?’ question and assumes that one needs to know what F is in order to know anything about F—where, as with Socrates, the knowledge at issue is knowledge as it contrasts with belief, and where definitions are real definitions.[xvii] The sight-lovers believe that we can answer the question ‘What is beauty?’ by simply mentioning the many beautifuls (ta polla kala, 479d3)—sensible properties like bright color. For in their view each such sensible property explains some range of cases. Bright color, for example, explains what makes this Klee painting beautiful; somber color explains what makes this Rembrandt painting beautiful; and so on. Against the sight-lovers, Plato points out that each such property suffers compresence since (e.g.) some brightly colored things are beautiful, others are ugly. In his view, if x is F and not F, it cannot explain why anything is F; so no such property can explain why anything is beautiful. Further, in his view as in Socrates’, we can explain why Fs are F only if F-ness is some one thing (479d3), the same in all cases; so F-ness cannot be a disjunction of properties. It is therefore a single non-sensible property, the form of F. This is required, in Platos view, by the possibility of knowledge. Like Socrates, then, Plato posits forms as universals whose existence is necessary for explanation and so for the possibility of knowledge. He also agrees with Socrates that F-ness itself cannot be not F. Unlike Socrates, however, Plato insists that forms are non-sensible. A related difference is that Socrates countenances a form for every property. But as Plato points out in, for example, Rep. 7 (523–5), only some predicates have sensible instances that suffer narrow compresence—‘thick’ and ‘thin’ are such predicates, but ‘finger’ is not. Like Socrates’ arguments for the existence of forms, Plato’s argument from compresence posits forms to explain, not the meaningfulness of general terms or linguistic understanding or even belief, but the possibility of explanation and knowledge. Indeed, the sight-lovers in Rep. 5 have rather sophisticated beliefs even though they do not countenance forms. Similarly, in Rep. 7 (523–5) sight can identify examples of thick and thin things, of hard and soft things; what it cannot do is define thickness and thinness, hardness and softness. For it is confined, naturally enough, to sensible properties, but in Platos view one cannot define thickness and thinness and so on in such terms.[xviii] Nor does the argument from compresence take forms to be particulars. Like Socrates, Plato assumes that a correct answer to a ‘What is F?’ question will specify the property of F. His interlocutors generally seem to agree; at least, their answers are typically phrased in terms of properties (e.g. bright color). The dispute between Plato and his interlocutors is about the nature of various properties: the sight-lovers take them to be sensible; Plato takes them to be non-sensible forms. The argument from compresence takes forms to be the basic objects of knowledge—one must know them in order to have any knowledge at all. It does not follow that forms are the only objects of knowledge. Nor is it clear why the fact that something suffers compresence should make it unknowable. Since bright color is both beautiful and ugly, it cannot be what beauty is; but it does not follow that we cannot know that bright color is both beautiful and ugly, or that something is brightly colored. Yet it is often thought that Plato takes sensibles to be unknowable, and it is often thought that Aristotle interprets Plato in this way. I have argued elsewhere, however, that Plato is committed only to the claim that forms are the basic objects of knowledge, in the sense that in order to know anything at all one must know them; he leaves open the possibility that if one knows them one can use that knowledge in such a way as to acquire knowledge of other things. It is tempting to suppose that Aristotle agrees. To be sure, Met. 1. 6 and 13.4 can be read as saying that Plato takes whatever changes to be unknowable. But perhaps Aristotle means only that Plato takes whatever changes to be unknowable in itself, independently of its relation to forms, so that whatever changes cannot be the basic object of definition or knowledge. Met. 13. 9 seems congenial to this interpretation. For Aristotle says there that ‘it is not possible to acquire knowledge without the universal’—a claim that plainly leaves open the possibility of knowing more than universals. Further, although he repeats the claim that Plato thinks that sensibles are always changing, he does not say that in Platos view that makes them unknowable. So perhaps Aristotle means to commit Plato only to the claim that forms are the basic objects of knowledge. The argument from compresence shows that forms are different from both sensible particulars and sensible properties. But it does not show that forms are separate, i.e. that they can exist whether or not the corresponding sensible particulars exist. Difference does not imply separation. Yet it is sometimes thought that Plato, both in fact and in Aristotles view, argues in this invalid way. The Metaphysics passages, however, do not saddle Plato with this invalid argument. Met. 1.6 says only that flux (i.e. on my interpretation, compresence) shows that forms are different (hetera; cf. Phaedo 74a11, c7) from sensibles; separation is not mentioned. In 13.4, Aristotle says that Plato separated forms; but he does not say why Plato did so. He mentions separation not as the conclusion of an argument, but simply as a distinguishing feature of the Platonic theory. In 13.9, however, Aristotle explains (III (1–6); see sect. 2) that Plato inferred from the flux of sensibles that there must be forms conceived as non-sensible universals that are the basic objects of knowledge and definition. He adds (III (8–10)) that Plato took forms to be substances, i.e. basic beings; since substances must be separate, forms are separate. Aristotle seems to believe, then, that the ‘flux argument’ shows only that forms are non-sensible universals that are the basic objects of knowledge and definition; that forms are separate follows only with the aid of further premises. These further premises give Plato a valid argument for separation. I think Aristotle is right not to claim that Plato argues from the flux of sensibles to the separation of forms; at least, Plato never does so explicitly.[xix] But is Aristotle right to say that Plato takes forms to be separate, if for other reasons? It is difficult to be sure. For one thing, Plato never says that forms are separate; he never, that is, uses any form or cognate of ‘chÃ… rizein’ of forms, at least not in the relevant sense.[xx] Nor do any of his explicit arguments imply that forms are separate. In the Timaeus, however, Plato seems to be committed to separation. For he says there that forms are everlasting and that the cosmos is not everlasting; there has always been a form of man, but there has not always been particular men. It follows that the form of man existed before the cosmos came into being, and so it existed when there were no sensible particular men; hence it can exist whether or not they do, and so it is separate. Now in the middle dialogues Plato sometimes says that forms are everlasting. But he does not say that the cosmos is not everlasting, so the Timaeus route to separation is not mentioned.[xxi] Indeed, nothing said in the middle dialogues seems to me to involve clear commitment to separation. None the less, separation fits well with the tenor of the middle dialogues, and the casual way in which separation emerges in the Timaeus perhaps suggests that Plato takes it for granted. So I shall assume that Aristotle is right to say that Plato separated forms, though it is important to be clear that Plato never argues, or even says, that forms are separate. Aristotle argues that since forms are separate, they are particulars (13. 9). Since he also takes forms to be universals, he concludes that forms are both universals and particulars. But as I (following Aristotle) understand separation, the claim that forms—universals—are separate is simply the claim that they can exist whether or not any corresponding sensible particulars exist. Why does Aristotle take this to show that forms are particulars? The answer is that he believes that universals exist when and only when they are instantiated; in his view, only substance particulars are separate (see e.g. Met. 1028a33–4). So he claims that if forms are separate they are (substance) particulars because he accepts the controversial view that universals cannot exist uninstantiated. He is therefore not convicting Plato of internal inconsistency: he means that Platos views do not square with the truth. He sees that Plato introduces forms simply to be universals; that they are particulars results only if we accept the controversial Aristotelian assumption, which Aristotle takes Plato to reject, that universals cannot exist uninstantiated. Aristotles complaints about separation therefore rely on one of the argumentative strategies as he intrudes into Platonism assumptions he accepts but that he thinks Plato rejects. Once we see that this is what Aristotle is doing, we can see that although he claims that forms are particulars, there is a sense in which he agrees with me that they are, or are intended to be, only universals. References: Allen, R. E. Platos Parmenides. Oxford: Blackwell, 1983. Beck, Maximilian. Platos Problem in the Parmenides. Journal of the History of Ideas.8 (1947): 232-36. Brandwood, Leonard. The Chronology of Platos Dialogues. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Cornford, F. M. Plato and Parmenides. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1939. Fowler, H. N. Plato-Statesman. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1925. Gadamer, Hans-Georg. The Idea of the Good in Platonic-Aristotelian Philosophy. Trans. Christopher Smith: New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. Guthrie, W. K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 5: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978. Miller, Mitchell H. Platos Parmenides: The Conversion of the Soul Reprint ed: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991. Miller, Mitchell, Jr. The Philosopher in Platos Statesman. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1980. Nussbaum, Martha. The Fragility of Goodness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Plato. Euthyphro. Apology. Crito. Phaedo. Phaedrus Trans. H. N. Fowler: Loeb Classical Library 1999. . Great Dialogues of Plato. Trans. W. H. D. Rouse. Reissue ed: Signet Classics, 1999. . The Republic. Trans. Desmond Lee. Ed. Rachana Kamtekar. 2nd ed: Penguin Classics, 2003. . Theaetetus. Kessinger Publishing, 2004. Rochol, Hans. The Dialogue Parmenides: An Insoluble Enigma in Platonism? International Philosophical Quarterly.11 (1971): 496-520. Sayre, Kenneth. Platos Late Ontology. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983. [i] Plato never uses the phrase ‘one over many’ (hen epi pollÃ… n; hen para polla). But he contrasts the one and the many, and he sometimes says that forms are para various things. (Parm. 132a11–12 has epi toutois au pasin heteron; 132c3 has some one thing which is epi pasin.) [ii] See Penner, ‘The Unity of Virtue’, and Irwin, PMT, ch. 3. See also C. C. W. Taylor, Plato: Protagoras (Oxford, 1976), 103–8 (though Taylor is less sure than Penner and Irwin are that Socrates is clear about the difference between sense and reference; see pp. 106–7). In ‘Plato on Naming’, Philosophical Quarterly, 27 (1977), 289–301, I in effect argue that Crat.—which contains an extended discussion of names, and of language more generally—does not involve a referential theory of meaning, or confuse sense and reference. If Crat. articulates Socrates views, then it provides further evidence that he is not committed to a referential theory of meaning and does not confuse sense and reference. By contrast, Vlastos, ‘The Unity of the Virtues’, 227, claims that neither Socrates nor Plato ever distinguishes between sense and reference. [iii] White, Plato on Knowledge and Reality, 9, agrees that semantic considerations are not ‘wholly explicit’ in the Socratic dialogues, but he believes that Meno 72–4 and Eu. 5c8–d5 suggest such considerations ‘less openly’. On the account of these passages that I have defended, however, they are not semantic. For both passages concern the ‘What is F?’ question, which asks not for the meaning of ‘F’, but for a real definition of F. Perhaps in mentioning the Meno passage, White has in mind 74d5–6, where Socrates tells Meno that since he calls various things by the name ‘shape’, Meno should be able to tell him what shape is. But Socrates seems to mean only that since Meno thinks that there are various shapes, he should be able to tell Socrates what shape is—it is the fact that the name applies to something, rather than the fact that there is such a name, that suggests that shape is something. To say that if a name, ‘F’, applies to something, there is such a thing as F-ness does not imply that every general term denotes a property or form, or that forms are the meanings of the terms to which they correspond, or even that forms are relevant to explaining the meanings of general terms. [iv] In La. 192ab, for example, Socrates argues that just as speed is some one thing, so too is courage. In Meno 72a–74a, he argues that just as being a bee is some one thing, so too is virtue. [v] Allen, by contrast, thinks that Met. 1. 6 ‘implies that Socrates identified the objects of definition with sensibles, which is another way of saying that he did not distinguish Forms from their instances’ (Platos Euthyphro, 134; cf. 136). But Met. 1. 6 says only that Socrates did not take them to be non-sensible, which leaves open the possibility that Socrates did not take them to be sensible either—he was uncommitted either way. Even if Aristotle means that Socrates took the objects of definition to be sensible, it would not follow that he thought that Socrates did not distinguish them from sensible particulars (which is what Allen seems to mean by ‘instances’). For Aristotle believes that there are not only sensible particulars but also sensible or observable properties or universals (see Ch. 2.4). And in Met. 13. 9, he commends Socrates for acknowledging the existence of universals as entities distinct from particulars, since ‘it is not possible to acquire knowledge without the universal’ (1086b5–6). If Aristotle claims both that Socrates recognized the existence of universals and also that he took them to be sensible, then the sensibles at issue here should be sensible universals rather than sensible particulars. [vi] I take ‘A exists independently of B’ to be equivalent to ‘A can exist whether or not B exists’. To say that A is separate from B is compatible with saying that B is separate from A. If A is separate from B but B is not separate from A, then A is not only separate from but also ontologically prior to B. Ontological priority implies separation, but separation does not imply ontological priority. [vii] In these two passages, ‘kath’ hekasta’ and ‘aisthÄ“ta’ denote only particulars.. [viii] Hence the claim that forms are separate is weaker than the claim that they can exist uninstantiated tout court. If forms can exist uninstantiated, they are separate, but the converse is not true. [ix] If Socrates believes that a form can exist only if it is in something, then he rejects separation; for the view that he believes this, see Vlastos, Socrates, 74; cf. pp. 55–66, 72–80. (By contrast, in ‘The Unity of the Virtues’, 252, Vlastos says that Socratic forms or universals are not ‘ontological dependencies of persons’; this seems to say that they exist independently of sensible particulars, in which case they are separate.) But although Socrates assumes that forms are in things, I do not see that he commits himself to the view that they would not exist unless they were in things. [x] By contrast, Allen, Platos Euthyphro, 136, argues that Socrates separated forms. [xi] See e.g. Prot. (330c3–e2, where justice is said to be just, and piety pious); HMa. 291d1–3 (beauty ‘will never appear ugly to anyone anywhere’—though even if it never appears ugly, it does not follow that it appears beautiful); Eu. 5d1–5 (the eidos of piety is pious) and, possibly, Eu. 5d1–5 (but cf. Vlastos, Socrates, 57 n. 48); Lys. 217ce. As I go on to suggest, commitment to self-predication also seems to be tacit or assumed elsewhere. [xii] More precisely, Socrates believes that endurance no more explains why one thing is courageous than why another thing is not. For in his view the only real—or, at least, the ultimate—explanation of anythings being F is the one thing by which all Fs are F. But it will be convenient to speak as I do in the text. [xiii] To say that if x explains ys being F, it is itself F, though perhaps in a different way from the way in which y is F, is not to say that x and y are F in different senses of ‘F’. To illustrate the difference between different ways of being F and different senses of ‘F’: horses and cows are animals in different ways, but ‘animal’ means the same in ‘Horses are animals’ and in ‘Cows are animals’. ‘Seal’, however, means something different as applied to the seals in a zoo and the Great Seal of the United States; see S. Peterson, ‘A Reasonable Self-Predication Premise for the Third Man Argument’, Philosophical Review, 82 (1973), 451–70 at 464. I elaborate on this point below in discussing Plato on SP; see also Chs. 10, 15, and 16. If xs explaining ys being F is a sui generis way of being F, then Socrates view of self-predication is not refuted by the fact that e.g. saccharine tastes bitter but makes other things taste sweet. Nor does saccharine therefore suffer narrow compresence of opposites, since it is not both sweet and bitter in virtue of some one and the same aspect of itself. It is sweet because it makes other things taste sweet; it is bitter because of its own taste. [xiv] C. C. W. Taylor interprets Socrates notion of self-predication in a somewhat similar way, saying that ‘if justice is seen as a force in a man causing him to act justly, it is by no means obviously nonsensical to describe it .  .  . as just’ (pp. 119–20; contrast pp. 112–13). See also Irwin, PMT 306 n. 6. However, they seem to think that Socrates takes the form of justice, for example, to be just in the very same way in which a person is just. [xv] In Plato, see e.g. Ap. 23b1; Gorg. 525c6–7; So. 251a7; Phdr. 262c9; Pol. 277d1; Laws 663e9. In Aristotle, see e.g. Top. 151b21, 157a14, 15. [xvi] For Platos insistence that knowledge requires an account, see Phd. 76b4–6, Rep. 531e4–5, 534b3–6, Tm. 51e3. Passages in which Plato asks the ‘What is F?’ question also assume that knowledge requires an account; for he believes that one needs to know what F is in order to know anything about F, and knowing what F is involves knowing an account of it. For references to places where Plato asks the ‘What is F?’ question, see below and the next note. (In all these passages, the relevant sort of account involves explaining the natures of the relevant entities; but see n. 17.) [xvii] For references to the ‘What is F?’ question, see e.g. Rep. 523d4–5, 524c11, e6. In Rep. 5 Plato infers from the fact that the sight-lovers do not know what beauty is that they know nothing about beauty; this assumes that one needs to know what F is in order to know anything about F. I discuss Rep. 5 further in Ch. 7. For a more detailed discussion, see my ‘Knowledge and Belief in Republic V’, Archiv fà ¼r Geschichte der Philosophic 60 (1978), 121–39, and ‘Knowledge and Belief in Republic V–VII’, in S. Everson (ed.), Companions to Ancient Thought, i: Epistemology (Cambridge, 1990), 85–115. [xviii] Rep. 523–5 is sometimes thought to concern not definitions of properties but identification of examples. For some discussion, see Irwin, PMT, ch. 6, esp. 318 n. 26, and 320–1 n. 39. I discuss this matter further, though still briefly, in ‘The One over Many’ and in ‘Plato on Perception’, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy, supplementary volume (1988), 15–28. [xix] In Phd. 74a9–c5, for example, he infers from the fact that sensible equals are equal and unequal that there must be a form of equal that is different from, non-identical with, sensible equals. Separation is not mentioned. [xx] Neither Tm. nor the middle dialogues use any form or cognate of ‘chÃ… rizein’ of forms. In Parm., Plato says that ‘similarity itself exists separately (chÃ… ris) from the similarity we ourselves have’ (130b4); Vlastos, Socrates, 259–61, takes him to mean that forms exist independently of sensibles, i.e. can exist whether or not they do. However, in the just preceding lines Plato asks: ‘Have you yourself, as you say, distinguished in this way, on the one hand, separately certain forms themselves, on the other, separately, in turn, the t hings which participate in them?’ (130b1–3). Here he suggests, not that forms exist independently of sensibles, but that they can be distinguished separately from them, just as sensibles can in their turn be distinguished separately from forms. 130b4 seems to illustrate this general point by way of a particular example; it does not make a new point about existential independence. [xxi] Actual uninstantiation is sufficient but not necessary for separation. My point is that unlike Tm., the middle dialogues are not clearly committed to this particular sufficient condition. Rep. 10 has a form of bed. If it is everlasting, presumably it has not always been instantiated, since presumably there have not always been sensible beds, in which case it is separate.